1-a INTERNAL REVENUE CHEEK v. US 498 U.S. 192, 112 L.Ed.2d 617 Argued Oct. 3.1990 Decided Jan. 8, 1991 Defendant was convicted in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, Paul E. Plunkett, J. of attempting to evade income taxes and failing to file income tax returns, and he appealed. The Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit affirmed, 882 F.2d 1263. The United States Supreme Court, Justice White, held that (1) defendant was not entitled to acquittal based on good-faith belief that income tax law was unconstitutional as applied to him and thus did not legally impose any duty on him, but (2) defendant's good-faith belief that the tax laws did not impose any duty on him did not have to be objectively reasonable in order to be considered by the jury. Vacated and remanded 1. Criminal Law 313 Based on the notion that the law is definite and knowable, common law presumed that every person knew the law. 2. Internal Revenue 5263.35 "Willfulness" for purposes of criminal tax laws requires the Government to prove that the law imposed a duty on the defendant, that the defendant knew of the duty, and that he voluntarily and intentionally violated that duty. 26 U.S.C.A. 7201, 7203 3. Criminal Law 20 Where issue is whether defendant knew of duty PURPORTEDLY imposed by statute or regulation he is accused of violating, if Government proves actual knowledge of the pertinent legal duty, the prosecution, without more, has satisfied the knowledge component of the willfulness requirement. 4. Internal Revenue 5300 Government has not proved that defendant was aware of the duty imposed by the tax law which he is accused of willfully disobeying if the jury credits a good-faith missunderstanding and belief submission, whether or not the claimed belief or misunderstanding is objectively reasonable. 26 U.S.C.A. 7201, 7203 5. Internal Revenue 5262.35 Defendant's claimed good-faith belief need not be objectively reasonable in order for it to negate Government's evidence PURPORTING to show defendant's awareness of his duties under the tax laws. 26 U.S.C.A. 7201, 7203. 6. Constitutional Law 38 Where posible, court interprets congressional enactments so as to avoid raising serious constitutional questions. 7. Internal Revenue 5317 It was error to instruct the jury to disregard evidence of defendant's understanding that, within meaning of the tax laws, he was not person required to file a return or to pay income taxes and that wages are not taxable income, as incredible as those misunderstandings of and beliefs about the tax law might be. 26 U.S.C.A. 7201, 7203 8. Internal Revenue 5263.35 Defendant's good-faith belief that income tax law was unconstitutional as applied to him did not provide defense to charges of willfully attempting to evade income taxes and failing to file income tax returns, not withstanding claim that, because of his belief in the unconstitutionality ot the tax laws as applied to him, the income tax laws could not legally impose any duty upon him of which he should have been aware. 26 U.S.C.A. 7201, 7203 Justice White dellivered the opinion of the Court. Title 26, 7201 of the United States Code provides that any person "who willfully attempts in any manner to evade or defeat any tax imposed by this title or the payment thereof" shall be guilty of a felony. Under 26 U.S.C. 7203, "any person required under this title...or by regulations made under authority thereof to make a return... who willfully fails to... make such return" shall be guilty of a misdemeanor... This case turns on the meaning of the word "willfully" as used in 7201 and 7203. I Petitioner John L. Cheek has been a pilot for American Airlines since 1973. He filed federal income tax returns through 1979 but thereafter ceased to file returns. He also claimed an increasing number of withholding allowances--eventuallyclaiming 60 allowances by mid-1980- and for the years 1981 to 1984 indicated on his W-4 forms that he was exempt from federal income taxes. In 1983, petitioner unsuccessfully sought a refund of all tax withheld by his employer in 1982. Petitioner's income during this period at all times far exceeded the minimum necessary to trigger the statutory filing requirement. As a result of his activities, petitioner was indicted for 10 violations of federal law. He was charged with six counts of willfully failing to file a federal income tax return for the years 1980, 1981, and 1983 through 1986, in violation of 7203. He was further charged with three counts of willfully attempting to evade his income taxes for the years 1980, 1981, and 1983 in violation of 26 U.S.C. 7201. In those years, American Airlines withheld substantially less than the amount of tax petitioner owed because of the numerous allowances and exempt status he claimed on his W-4 forms. The tax offenses with which petitioner was charged are specific intent crimes that require the defendant to have acted willfully. At trial, the evidence established that between 1982 and 1986, petitioner was involved in at least four civil cases that challenged various aspects of the federal income tax system. In all four of those cases, the plaintiffs were informed by the courts that many of their arguments, including that they were not taxpayers within the meaning of the tax laws, that wages are not income, that the Sixteenth Amendment does not authorize the imposition of an income tax on individuals, and that the Sixteenth Amendment is unenforceable, were frivolous or had been repeatedly rejected by the courts. During this time period, petitioner also attended at least two criminal trials of persons charged with tax offenses. In addition, there was evidence that in 1980 or 1981 an attorney had advised Cheek that the courts had rejected as frivolous the claim that wages are not income. Cheek represented himself at trial and testified in his defense. He admitted that he had not filed personal income tax returns during the years in question. He testified that as early as 1978, he had begun attending seminars sponsored by, and following the advice of, a group that believes, among other things, that the federal tax system is unconstitutional. Some of the speakers at these meetings were lawyers who PURPORTED to give professional opions about the invalidity of the federal income tax laws. Cheek produced a letter from an attorney stating that the Sixteenth Amendment did not authorize a tax on wages and salaries but only on gain or profit. Petitioners defense was that, based on the indoctrination he received from this group and from his own study, he sincerely believed that the tax laws were being unconstitutionally enforced and that his actions during the 1980-1986 period were lawful. He therefore argued that he had acted without the willfulness required for conviction of the various offenses with which he was charged. In the course of its instruction, the trial court advised the jury that to prove "willfulness" the Government must prove the voluntary and intentional violation of a known legal duty, a burden that could not be proved by shownig mistake, ignorance, or negligence. The court further advised the jury that an objectively reasonable good-faith misunderstanding of the law would negate willfulness, but mere disagreement with the law would not. The court described Cheek's beliefs about the income tax system and instructed the jury that if it found that Cheek "honestly and reasonable believed that he was not required to pay income taxes or to file tax returns", App 81, a not guilty verdict should be returned. After several hours of deliberation, the jury sent a note to the judge that stated in part: "We have a basic disagreement between some of us as to if Mr. Cheek honestly & reasonably believed that he was not required to pay income taxes." "Page 32 (the relevant jury instruction) discusses good faith misunderstanding & disagreement. Is there any additional clarification you can give us on this point?" The District Judge responded with a supplemental instruction containing the following statements: (A) person's opinion that the tax laws violate his constitutional rights does not constitute a good faith misunderstanding of the law. Furthermore, a person's disagreement with the government's tax collection systems and policies does not constitute a good faith misunderstanding of the law. At the end of the first day of deliberation, the jury sent out another note saying that it still could not reach a verdict because "We are divided on the issue as to if Mr Cheek honestly & reasonably believed that he was not required to pay income tax." When the jury resumed its deliberation, the District Judge gave the jury an additional instruction, This instruction stated in part that "an honest but unreasonable belief is not a defense and does not negate willfulness," and that "advice or research resulting in the conclusion that wages of a privately employed person are not income or that the tax laws are unconstitutional is not objectively reasonable and cannot serve as the basis for a good faith misunderstanding of the law defense." The court also instructed the jury that persistent refusal to acknowledge the law does not constitute a good faith misunderstanding of the law." Approximately two hours later, the jury returned a verdict finding petitioner guilty on all counts." Petitioner appealed his convictions, arguing that the District Court erred by instructing the jury that only an objectively reasonable misunderstanding of the law negates the statutory willfulness requirement. the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit rejected that contention and affirmed the convictions. 882 F2d 1263 (1989). In prior cases, the Seventh Circuit had made clear that good-faith misunderstanding of the law negates willfulness only if the defendant's beliefs are objectively reasonable; in the Seventh Circuit, even actual ignorance is not a defense unless the defendant's ignorance was itself objectively reasonable. See, e.g. United States v. Buckner, 830 F2d. 102 (1987). In its opinion in this case, the court noted that several specified beliefs, including the beliefs that the tax laws are unconstitutional and that wages are not income, would not be objuctively reasonable." Because the Seventh Circuit's interpretation of "willfully" as used in these statutes conflicts with the decisions of several other Courts of Appeals, see e.g. United States v Whiteside, 810 F2d. 1306, 1310-1311 (CA5 1987); United States v Phillips 775 F2d. 262, 263-264 (CA10 1985); United States v Aitken, 775 F2d. 188, 191-193 (CA1 1985), we granted certiorari, 493 US 1068, 107 L. Ed 2d 1016, 110 S Ct 1108 (1990). II (4) The general rule that ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is no defense to criminal prosecution is deply rooted in the American legal system. See, e.g. United States v Smith, 5 Wheat 153, 182, 5 L Ed 57 (1820) (Livingston J., dissenting); Barlow v United States, 7 Pet 404, 411, 8 L Ed 728 (1833); Reynolds v United States, 98 US 145, 167,25 L Ed 2d 244 (1879); Shevlin-Carpenter Co. v Minnesota, 218 US 57, 68, 54 L Ed 930, 30 S Ct 663 (1910); Lambert v California, 355 US 225, 228, 2 L Ed 2d 228, 78 S Ct 240 (1957); Liparota v United States, 471 US 419, 441, 85 L Ed 2d 434, 105 S Ct 2084 (1985) (White, J., dissenting); O. Holmes, The Common Law 47-48 (1881). Based on the notion that the law is definite and knowable, the common law presumed that every person knew the law. This common-law rule has been applied by the Court in numerous cases construing criminal statutes. See, e.g. United States v International Minerals & Chemical Corp. 402 US 558, 29 L Ed 2d 178, 91 S Ct 1697 (1971); Hamling v United States, 418 US 87, 119-124, 41 L Ed 2d 590, 94 S Ct 2887 (1974); Boyce Motor Lines, Inc. v United States, 342 US 337, 96 L Ed 367, 72 S Ct 329 (1952). (5a) The proliferation of statutes and regulations has sometimes made it difficult for the average citizen to know and comprehend the extent of the duties and oblilgations imposed by the tax laws. Congress has accordingly softened the impact of the common-law presumption by making specific intent to violate the law an element of certain federal criminal tax offenses. Thus, the Court almost 60 years ago interpreted the statutory term "willfully" as used in the federal criminal tax statutes as carving out an exception to the traditional rule. This special treatment of criminal tax offenses is largely due to the complexity of the tax laws. In United States v Murdock, 290 US 389, 78 L Ed 381, 54 S Ct 223 (1933), the Court recognized that; "Congress did not intend that a person, by reason of a bona fide misunderstanding as to his liability for the tax, as to his duty to make a return, or as to the adequacy of the records he maintained, should become a criminal by his mere failure to measure up to the prescribed standard of conduct." Id., at 396, 78 L Ed 381, 54 S Ct 223. The Court held that the defendant was entitled to an instruction with respect to whether he acted in good faith based on his actual belief. In Murdock, the Court interpreted the term "willfully" as used in the criminal tax statutes generally to mean "an act done with a bad purpose." id, at 394, 78 L Ed 381, 44 S Ct 223 or with "an evil motive," id, at 395, 78 L Ed 381, 54 S Ct 223. Subsequent decisions have refined this proposition. In United States v Bishop, 412 US 346, 36 L Ed 2d 941, 93 S Ct 2008 (1973), we described the term "willfully" as connoting "a voluntary, intentional violation of a known legal duty," id., at 360, 35 L Ed 2d 941, 93 S Ct 2008, and did so with specific reference to the "bad faith or evil intent" language employed in Murdock. Still later, United States v Pomponio, 429 US 10, 50 L Ed 2d 12, 97 S Ct 22 (1976) ( per curiam), addressed a situation in which several defendants had been charged with willfully filing false tax returns. The jury was given an instruction on willfulness similar to the standard set forth in Bishop. In addition, it was instructed that " good motive alone is never a defense where the act done or omitted is a crime." Id., at 11, 50 L Ed 2d 12, 97 S Ct 22. The defendants were convicted but the Court of Appeals reversed, concluding that the latter instruction was improper bacause the statute required a finding of bad purpose or evil motive. Ibid. We reversed the Court of Appeals, stating that "the Court of Appeals incorrectly assumed that the reference to an 'evil motive' in United States v Bishop, supra, and prior cases." ibed., "requires proof of any motive other than an intentional violation of a known legal duty." Id., at 12, 50 L Ed 2d 12, 97 S Ct 22. As "the other Courts of Appeals that have considered the question have recognized, willfulness in this context simply means a voluntary, intentional violation of a known legal duty." Ibed. we concluded that after instructing the jury on willfulness, "an additional instruction on good faith was unnecessary." Id., at 13, 50 L Ed 2d 12, 97 S Ct 22. taken together, Bishop and Pomponio conclusively establish that the standard for the statutory willfulness requirement is the "voluntary, intentional violation of a known legal duty,." III Cheek accepts the Pomponio definition of willfulness, Brief for petitioner 5, and n.4, 13, 36; Reply Brief for Petitioner 4, 6-7, 11, 13, but asserts that the District Court's instructions and the Court of Appeals" opion departed from that definition. In particular, he challenges the ruling that a good-faith misunderstanding of the law or a good-faith belief that one is not violating the law, if it is to negate willfulness, must be objectively reasonable. we agree that the Court of Appeals and the District Court erred in this respect. A (2-4) Willfulness, as construed by our prior decisions in criminal tax cases, requires the Government to prove that the law imposed a duty on the defendant, that the defendant knew of this duty, and that he voluntarily and intentionally violated that duty. We deal first with the case where the issue is whether the defendant knew of the duty PURPORTEDLY imposed by the provision of the statute or regulation he is accused of violating, a case in which there is no claim that the provision at issue is invalid. In such a case, if the Government proves actual knowledge of the pertinent legal duty, the prosecution, without more, has satisfied the knowledge component of the willfulness requirement. But carrying this burden requires negating a defendant's claim of ignorance of the law or a claim that because of a misunderstanding of the law, he had a good-faith belief that he was not violating any of the provisions of the tax laws. This is so because one cannot be aware that the law imposes a duty upon him and yet be ignorant of it, misunderstand the law, or believe that the duty does not exist. In the end, the issue is whether, based on all the evidence, the Government has proved that the defendant was aware of the duty at issue, which cannot be true if the jury credits a good-faith misunderstanding and belief submission, whether or not hte claimed belief or misunderstanding is objectively reasonable. In this case, if Cheek asserted that he truly believed that the Internal revenue Code did not PURPORT to treat wages as income, and the jury believed him, the Government would not have carried its burden to prove willfulness, however unreasonable a court might deem such a belief. Of course, in deciding whether to credit Cheek's good--faith belief claim, the jury would be free to consider any admissible evidence from any source showing that Cheek was aware of his duty to file a return and to treat wages as income, including evidence showing his awareness of the relevant provisions of the Code or regulations, of court decisions rejecting his interpretation of the tax law, of authoritative rulings of the Internal Revenue Service, or of any contents of the personal income tax return forms and accompanying instructions that made it plain that wages should be returned as income. (5,6) We thus disagree with the Court of Appeals' requirement that a claimed good-faith belief must be objectively reasonable if it is to be considered as possibly negating the Government's evidence PURPORTING to show a defendant's awareness of the legal duty at issue. Knowledge and belief are characteristically questions for the factfinder, in this case the jury. Characterizing a particular belief as not objectively reasonable transforms the inquiry into a legal one and would prevent the jury from considering it. It would of course be proper to exclude evidence having no relevance or probative value with respect to willfulness; but it is not contrary to common sense, let alone impossible, for a defendant to be ignorant of his duty based on an irrational belief that he has no duty, and forbidding the jury to consider evidence that might negate willfulness would raise a serious question under tha Sixth Amendment's jury trial provision. Cf. Francis v. Franklin, 471 U.S. 307, 105 S.Ct. 1965, 85 L..Ed.2d 344 (1985); Sandstrom v. Montana, 442 U.S. 510, 99 S.Ct. 2450, 61 L.Ed2d 39 (1979); Morissette v. United States, 342 U.S. 246, 72 S.Ct. 240, 96 L.Ed. 288 (1952). It is common ground that this Court, where possible, interprets congressional enactments so as to avoid raising serious constitutional questions. See, e.g. Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. v. Florida Gulf Coast Building & Construction Trades Council, 485 U.S. 568, 575, 108 S.Ct. 1392, 1397, 99 L.Ed.2d 645 (1988); Crowell v. Benson, 285 U.S. 22, 62, and n. 30, 52 S.Ct. 285, 296, and n. 30, 76 L.Ed. 598 (1932); Public Citizen v. Department of Justice, 491 U.S. 440, 465-466, 109 S.Ct. 2558, 2572-2573, 105 L.Ed.2d 377 (1989) (7) It was therefore error to instruct the jury to disregard evidence of Cheek's understanding that, within the meaning of the tax laws, he was not a person required to file a return or to pay income taxes and that wages are not taxable income, as incredible as such misunderstandings of and beliefs about the law might be. Of course, the more unreasonable the asserted beliefs or misunderstandings are, the more likely the jury will consider them to be nothing more than simple disagreement with known legal duties imposed by the tax laws and will find that the Government has carried its burden of proving knowledge. B (8) Cheek asserted in the trial court that he should be acquitted because he believed in good faith that the income tax law is unconstitutional as applied to him and thus could not legally impose any duty upon him of which he should have been aware. Such a submission is unsound, not because Cheek's constitutional arguments are not objectively reasonable or frivoulous, which they surely are, but because the Murdock-Pomponio line of cases does not support such a position. Those cases construed the willfulness requirement in the criminal provisions of the Internal Revenue Code to require proof of knowledge of the law. This was because in "our complex tax system, uncertainty often arises even among taxpayers who earnestly wish to follow the law", and "it is not the purpose of the law to penalize frank difference of opinion or innocent errors made despite the exercise of reasonable care." United States v. Bishop 412 U.S. 346, 360-361, 93 S.Ct. 2008, 2017-2018, 36 L.Ed.2d 941 (1973) (quoting Spies v. United States, 317 U.S. 492, 496, 63 S.Ct. 364, 367, 87 L.Ed. 418 (1943) Claims that some of the provisions of the tax code are unconstitutional are submissions of a different order. They do not arise from innocent mistakes caused by the complexity of the Internal Revenue Code. Rather, they reveal full knowledge of the provisions at issue and a studied conclusion, however wrong, that those provisions are invalid and unenforceable. Thus in this case, Cheek paid his taxes for years, but after attending various seminars and based on his own study, he concluded that the income tax laws could not constitutionally require him to pay a tax. We do not believe that Congress contemplated that such a taxpayer, without risking criminal prosecution, could ignore the duties imposed upon him by the Internal Revenue Code and refuse to utilize the mechanisms provided by Congress to present his claims of invalidity to the courts and to abide by their decisions. There is no doubt that Cheek, from year to year, was free to pay the tax that the law PURPORTED to require, file for a refund and, if denied, present his claims of invalidity, constitutional or otherwise, to the courts. See 26 U.S.C. 7422. Also, without paying the tax, he could have challenged claims of tax deficiencies in the Tax Court, 6213, with the right to appeal to a higher court if unsuccessful. 7482(a)(1). Cheek took neither course in some years, and when he did was unwilling to accept the outcome. As we see it, he is in no position to claim that his good-faith bellief about the validity of the Internal revenue code negates willfulness or provides a defense to criminal prosecution under 7201 and 7203. Of course, Cheek was free in this very case to present his claims of invalidity and have them adjudicated, but like defendants in criminal cases in other contexts, who "willfully" refuse to comply with the duties placed upon them by the law, he must take the risk of being wrong. We thus hold that in a case lilke this, a defendant's views about the validity of the tax statutes are irrelevant to the issue of willfulness and need not be heard by the jury, and, if they are, an instructin to disregard them would be proper. For this purpose, it makes no difference whether the claims of invalidity are frivoulous or have substance. It was therefore not error in this case for the District Judge to instruct the jury not to consider Cheek's claims that the tax laws were unconstitutional. However, it was error for the court to instruct the jury that petitioner's asserted beliefs that wages are not income and that he was not a taxpayer within the meaning of the Internal Revenue Code should not be considered by the jury in determining wheteher Cheek had acted willfully. IV For the reasons set forth in the opinion above, the judgement of the Court of Appeals is vacated, and the case is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. It is so ordered.d to him and thus could not legally impose any duty upon him of which he should havvr-an @iWU<<<n&F, I < ^ - / e _g(Q " & &S+U+^+`+//222C4E455994=6=@=a?c?k?DDsHuHOOQQQQUUXX;]=]Y`[`d`aa/aDsHuHOOQQ f=/2!898(of the provisions of the `d`ional are submissions of a different order. They do not arise from innocent mistakes caused by the comp  70ASher, they reveal full knowledge of the provisions at issue and a studied conclusion, how Arialhat those provisions are invalid and unenforceable. Thus in this case, Cheek paid his taxes for years, but after at